托福閱讀從讀不完到讀完如何練習(xí)
托福閱讀部分,文章讀不完,是每位同學(xué)在備考中需要解決的問(wèn)題。那么具體的練習(xí)備考中,我們究竟應(yīng)該怎么做呢?下面小編為大家整理了詳細(xì)的內(nèi)容,供大家參考。
托福閱讀從讀不完到讀完如何練習(xí)
1. 讀標(biāo)題
首先,一篇文章的結(jié)構(gòu)由標(biāo)題,開(kāi)頭段,主體段以及結(jié)尾段組成。托福文章最人性化的一點(diǎn)就是三篇文章都有標(biāo)題,很多同學(xué)讀到這里會(huì)覺(jué)得:老師你這不是在說(shuō)廢話嗎?不,很多人忽略了標(biāo)題的作用。分析一下TPO所有文章的標(biāo)題,大家會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)托福文章的標(biāo)題形式一共三種:?jiǎn)我恍停⒘行鸵约跋薅l件單一型。這樣的標(biāo)題設(shè)計(jì)最大的作用在于,預(yù)告了本文的文章結(jié)構(gòu)特點(diǎn)(因?yàn)槠P(guān)系,這個(gè)知識(shí)點(diǎn)此處不詳細(xì)說(shuō)明),通過(guò)固定的幾類文章結(jié)構(gòu)特點(diǎn),我們可以預(yù)判此篇文章主要在講什么。我們來(lái)看一個(gè)例子,OG上的第一篇文章:Applied Artsand Fine Arts。
先來(lái)看一下這個(gè)標(biāo)題,是并列型,即有兩個(gè)討論對(duì)象,這種標(biāo)題類型的文章特點(diǎn)是全文有兩個(gè)論述對(duì)象,且排名不分前后,也就是文章會(huì)用相同的篇幅去討論這兩個(gè)對(duì)象。其次,還會(huì)有兩者相同點(diǎn),不同點(diǎn)的比較。那么我們可以預(yù)判一下本文的主旨:比較Applied Arts and Fine Arts的特點(diǎn)。
可是大家想要進(jìn)一步知道:比較的特點(diǎn)是哪一些呢?標(biāo)題能夠傳遞的信息畢竟有限,所以我們需要其他的方法來(lái)深挖一下文章主旨。
2. 開(kāi)頭段和結(jié)尾段
托福文章的行文結(jié)構(gòu)分為三種:總分總,總分和分總??偧创碇髦妓?,所以主要會(huì)在開(kāi)頭段和結(jié)尾段闡述。我們只需要精讀這兩個(gè)段落就可以了。還是以Applied Arts and Fine Arts這篇文章為例,現(xiàn)在我們來(lái)看一下開(kāi)頭段:
Although we now tend to refer to the various crafts according to the materials used to construct them—clay, glass, wood, fiber, andmetal—it was once common to think of crafts in terms of function, which led totheir being known as the "applied arts." Approaching crafts from the point of view of function, we can divide them into simple categories: containers, shelters and supports. There is no way around the fact that containers, shelters, and supports must be functional. The applied arts are thus bound by the laws of physics, which pertain to both the materials used in their making and the substances and things to be contained, supported, and sheltered. These laws are universal in their application, regardless of cultural beliefs, geography, orclimate. If a pot has no bottom or has large openings in its sides, it couldhardly be considered a container in any traditional sense. Since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form ofapplied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits. Buildings without roofs, for example, are unusual because they depart from the norm. However, not all functional objects are exactly alike; that is why we recognize a Shang Dynastyvase as being different from an Inca vase. What varies is not the basic formbut the incidental details that do not obstruct the object's primary function.
如果大家迅速瀏覽一下整個(gè)段亂,會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)本段只出現(xiàn)了applied arts這個(gè)概念,而沒(méi)有關(guān)于fine arts的描述,那么這時(shí)候大家應(yīng)該反應(yīng)出來(lái)本文的結(jié)構(gòu)是分總,即主旨在結(jié)尾段:
Even though the fine arts in the twentieth century often treatmaterials in new ways, the basic difference in attitude of artists in relation totheir materials in the fine arts andthe applied arts remains relatively constant. It wouldtherefore not be too great an exaggeration to say that practitioners of the fine arts work to overcome the limitations oftheir materials, whereas those engaged in the applied arts work in concert with their materials.
迅速瀏覽完本段會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn),fine arts和applied arts這兩個(gè)概念在最后一段的都有論述。并且這句話:Itwould therefore not be too great an exaggeration to say that practitioners ofthe fine arts work to overcome the limitations oftheir materials, whereas those engaged in the applied arts work in concert with their materials. (因此,毫不夸張地說(shuō),純藝術(shù)工藝品的生產(chǎn)者需要克服原材料的限制進(jìn)行生產(chǎn),而從事實(shí)用性工藝品的生產(chǎn)者則依據(jù)材料的性質(zhì)來(lái)進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)。)大家看到主要的對(duì)比對(duì)象是材料的使用情況。
3. 文章小結(jié)題的introductory sentence
還有一個(gè)抓住文章主旨的小竅門是大家可以參考文章小結(jié)題所給的那一句話,即introdectory sentence,這句話的作用主要就是來(lái)概括全文的中心大意,我們還是來(lái)看Applied Arts and Fine Arts這篇文章的文章小結(jié)題:
Q:An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete thesummary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
This passage discusses fundamental differences between applied-art objects and fine-art objects.
新托福閱讀背景知識(shí):地球的旋轉(zhuǎn)時(shí)間變短
地球的旋轉(zhuǎn)時(shí)間變短
We have been talking about some of the effects that the human beings had on the earth. One you may not be aware of is that we actually begin to change the length of the day. In the other way to say, one day is the amount of time the earth needs to spin completely around an axis, the imaginary line around the center of the earth, from the north to the south. And of course there are a lot of physical causes that can affect the speed of the earth’s rotation, but there was only one that is direct result of the human activity. Since 1950, human beings have built about ten thousand artificial reservoirs all over the world. These reservoirs have redistributed tremendous amount of the earth water. When they are used to be in the area near the equator, the imaginary line surround the middle of the earth, it’s now the reservoirs in the areas of different latitudes. The latitude matters because, well, thinking the earth and axis, the equator contains the areas on the earth that are the farthest away from axis. So water has been redistributed from the equator regions, then wherever the water is, to it’s close to the earth axis. It’s like when ice skaters perform spins when those skaters put their arms enclose to their bodies, they spin faster. So the earth is spinning faster because the reservoirs have redistributed the water close to its axis. And because the earth was spinning faster, since 1950 the length of day has decreased by about 8 millionths of second. I know that doesn’t sound like much but significant in that this is the first time that human beings ever had measurable affect on the earth’s motion.
新托福閱讀背景知識(shí):潮汐發(fā)電
潮汐發(fā)電
凡在海邊上生活過(guò)的人都知道,海水時(shí)進(jìn)時(shí)退,海面時(shí)漲時(shí)落。海水的這種自然漲落現(xiàn)象就是人們常說(shuō)的的潮汐。潮汐是由月球的引潮力可使海面升高0.246米,在兩者的共同作用下,潮汐的最大潮差為8.9米;北美芬迪灣蒙克頓港最大潮差竟達(dá)19米.據(jù)計(jì)算,世界海洋潮汐能蘊(yùn)藏量約為27億千瓦,若全部轉(zhuǎn)換成電能,每年發(fā)電量大約為1.2萬(wàn)億度。潮汐發(fā)電嚴(yán)格地講應(yīng)稱為“潮汐能發(fā)電”,潮汐能發(fā)電僅是海洋能發(fā)電的一種,但是它是海洋能利用中發(fā)展最早、規(guī)模最大、技術(shù)較成熟的一種。
現(xiàn)代海洋能源開(kāi)發(fā)主要就是指利用海洋能發(fā)電。利用海洋能發(fā)電的方式很多,其中包括波力發(fā)電、潮汐發(fā)電、潮流發(fā)電、海水溫差發(fā)電和海水含鹽濃度差發(fā)電等,而國(guó)內(nèi)外已開(kāi)發(fā)利用海洋能發(fā)電主要是潮汐發(fā)電。由于潮汐發(fā)電的開(kāi)發(fā)成本較高和技術(shù)上的原因,所以發(fā)展不快。
潮汐發(fā)電與水力發(fā)電的原理相似,它是利用潮水漲、落產(chǎn)生的水位差所具有勢(shì)能來(lái)發(fā)電的,也就是把海水漲、落潮的能量變?yōu)闄C(jī)械能,再把機(jī)械能轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)殡娔?發(fā)電)的過(guò)程。具體地說(shuō),潮汐發(fā)電就是在海灣或有潮汐的河口建一攔水堤壩,將海灣或河口與海洋隔開(kāi)構(gòu)成水庫(kù),再在壩內(nèi)或壩房安裝水輪發(fā)電機(jī)組,然后利用潮汐漲落時(shí)海水位的升降,使海水通過(guò)輪機(jī)轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)水輪發(fā)電機(jī)組發(fā)電。
由于潮水的流動(dòng)與河水的流動(dòng)不同,它是不斷變換方向的,因此就使得潮汐發(fā)電出現(xiàn)了不同的型式,例如:①單庫(kù)單向型,只能在落潮時(shí)發(fā)電。②單庫(kù)雙向型:在漲、落潮時(shí)都能發(fā)電。③雙庫(kù)雙向型:可以連續(xù)發(fā)電,但經(jīng)濟(jì)上不合算,未見(jiàn)實(shí)際應(yīng)用。 4潮汐發(fā)電的實(shí)際應(yīng)用應(yīng)首推1912年在德國(guó)的胡蘇姆興建的一座小型潮汐電站,由此開(kāi)始把潮汐發(fā)電的理想變?yōu)楝F(xiàn)實(shí)。世界上第一座具有經(jīng)濟(jì)價(jià)值,而且也是目前世界上最大的潮汐發(fā)電站,是1966年在法國(guó)西部沿海建造的朗斯洛潮汐電站,它使潮汐電站進(jìn)入了實(shí)用階段,其裝機(jī)容量為24千瓦,年均發(fā)電量為5.44億度。1968年原蘇聯(lián)巴倫支海建成的基斯洛潮汐電站,其總裝機(jī)容量為800千瓦,年發(fā)電量為230萬(wàn)度。中國(guó)沿海已建成9座小型潮汐電站,1980年建成的江廈潮汐電站是我國(guó)第一座雙向潮汐電站,也是目前世界上較大的一座雙向潮汐電站,其總機(jī)容量為3200千瓦,年發(fā)電量為1070萬(wàn)度。
新托福閱讀背景知識(shí):海水發(fā)電
海水發(fā)電
碩大無(wú)比的天然熱庫(kù)
遼闊的海洋既是一個(gè)碩大無(wú)比的“儲(chǔ)熱庫(kù)”,它大量地吸收著太陽(yáng)能;同時(shí)它又是一臺(tái)極其巨大的“調(diào)溫機(jī)”,隨時(shí)都在調(diào)節(jié)著海洋的表面和深層的水溫。
海水的溫度,隨著深度的增加而降低。這是因?yàn)樘?yáng)光無(wú)法透射到400米以下的深海。表層海水與500米深處海水的溫度,相差可達(dá)20℃以上。人們通常把深度每增加100米海水溫度之差稱為海水的“溫度遞減率”。通常是在100~200米的深度范圍內(nèi)海水的溫度遞減率最大;深度超過(guò)200米以上,其溫度遞減率顯著減小;深度達(dá)到1000米以上時(shí),其溫度遞減率已經(jīng)變得相當(dāng)?shù)奈⑿×恕?/p>
海洋中上下層水溫的差異蘊(yùn)藏著一定的能量,專家們稱之為“海水溫差能”,也叫做“海洋熱能”。而這種海水溫差能可以用來(lái)進(jìn)行發(fā)電,人們把這種發(fā)電方式叫做“海水溫差發(fā)電”。
早在本世紀(jì)20年代,科學(xué)家們就開(kāi)始著手研究試驗(yàn)海水溫差發(fā)電的方法。1926年,法國(guó)物理學(xué)家G·克勞德進(jìn)行了海水溫差發(fā)電的小型試驗(yàn)。他在燒瓶A里加入28℃的溫水(這相當(dāng)于海水表層的水溫);連接在另一端燒瓶B里放入冰塊,并保持0℃水溫(以代表海洋深層的水溫)。用真空泵將A燒瓶?jī)?nèi)的空氣抽出(抽到壓力低到每平方厘米0.038)。由于液體的沸點(diǎn)是隨著加在液面上壓力的減小而降低的,所以在此低壓下,足以使得燒瓶中28℃的水沸騰起來(lái)。要是能夠使燒瓶?jī)?nèi)的真空度進(jìn)一步提高,也就是使燒瓶?jī)?nèi)的壓力變得更低,那么燒瓶?jī)?nèi)的溫水就會(huì)提前沸騰而迅速蒸發(fā)。這樣,相對(duì)于燒瓶B內(nèi)0℃的冰塊,就產(chǎn)生了以水蒸汽壓差為主的壓力差。于是,A燒瓶?jī)?nèi)蒸發(fā)的水蒸汽通過(guò)一個(gè)噴嘴噴出,推動(dòng)渦輪發(fā)電機(jī)組進(jìn)行發(fā)電。
克勞德試驗(yàn)成功以后,于1929年在古巴建造了一套專門進(jìn)行海水溫差發(fā)電的實(shí)驗(yàn)裝置。他用一根直徑2米的銅管,在距離海岸2000米處,從650米的深海中汲取冷海水。當(dāng)溫海水的溫度為27.5℃而冷海水的溫度為13℃時(shí),其發(fā)電功率為22千瓦。然而,他用水泵抽取冷海水時(shí)所消耗的功率卻達(dá)80千瓦。這豈不是“得不償失”嗎?實(shí)際上不然,克勞德的這套實(shí)驗(yàn)裝置的發(fā)電潛力并沒(méi)有得到充分發(fā)揮,按計(jì)算其發(fā)電功率可達(dá)220千瓦。但不管怎樣,克勞德的實(shí)驗(yàn)表明:利用海水的溫差來(lái)進(jìn)行發(fā)電,在技術(shù)上是可行的。
現(xiàn)在的新型海水溫差發(fā)電裝置,是首先把海水引入太陽(yáng)能加溫池,將海水加溫到45~60℃(有的可高達(dá)90℃),然后再將溫海水引進(jìn)保持真空的某一空間,讓它蒸發(fā),借助于水蒸汽來(lái)推動(dòng)汽輪發(fā)電機(jī)組進(jìn)行發(fā)電。
不過(guò)通常的做法是,采用氨作為工作物質(zhì),用氨來(lái)吸收海水表層的熱量而蒸發(fā)成氨蒸氣,以推動(dòng)汽輪發(fā)電機(jī)組進(jìn)行發(fā)電。做完功以后的氨被送進(jìn)冷凝器(由深層的冷海水進(jìn)行冷凝),再通過(guò)泵將液態(tài)氨重新泵入蒸發(fā)器,同時(shí)利用表層海水使氨再次蒸發(fā),繼續(xù)發(fā)電。
利用海水的溫差來(lái)進(jìn)行發(fā)電,還可以得到一種副產(chǎn)品——淡水,所以說(shuō)海水溫差發(fā)電還兼有海水淡化的功能。一座發(fā)電能力為10萬(wàn)千瓦的海水溫差發(fā)電站,每天可分餾出378立方米的淡水,以解決工業(yè)用水及飲用之需,另一方面,由于電站抽取的深層冷海水中富含營(yíng)養(yǎng)鹽類,所以在海水溫差發(fā)電站的周圍,正是浮游生物及魚(yú)類棲息的理想場(chǎng)所,這將有利于提高魚(yú)類的近海捕撈量。
利用海水溫差進(jìn)行發(fā)電,通常要選擇海水溫差在20℃以上的海域。古巴、巴西、安哥拉、印度尼西亞以及我國(guó)南部沿海等低緯度海域,是進(jìn)行海水溫差發(fā)電的理想場(chǎng)所。據(jù)專家們估計(jì),僅北緯20°至南緯20°之間的海域,海水溫差的發(fā)電能量就足以達(dá)到26億千瓦。全世界海洋蘊(yùn)藏的海水溫差能量大約能發(fā)電600億千瓦。在我國(guó)的海域內(nèi),可供利用的海水溫差能量大約能發(fā)電1.2億千瓦。
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